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Gene Cloning

A method of gene cloning includes the use of recombinant plasmids. This has been used in the production of insulin, production of vaccines and many more.

Social	Reduced costs of therapeutics made with bacteria Wider access to treatments	Employment opportunities in the biotech industry Misuse for non-therapeutic purposes
Biological	Human recombinant proteins more effective than proteins purified from other animals	Risk of contamination by bacterial molecules New, safer vaccines possible
Ethical	Use of bacteria for therapeutics addresses philosophical, cultural or religious objections to animal use	Manipulation or shifting of genes may be seen as unethical, regardless of purpose

DNA Probe

DNA probes are artificially created fragments of ssDNA and ssRNA which are labelled with a radioactive or fluorescent dye that bind to a specific sequence of DNA. Therefore, they are useful in determining if an individual is carrying a specific allele or has a specific sequence of DNA

DNA Profiling – RFLP

Restriction fragment length polymorphism is where a section of DNA is amplified with PCR, cut with restriction enzymes and then run through gel electrophoresis. The banding of the gel is analysed by comparing the similarities and differences in lengths of fragments to another sample. e.g. DNA from a suspect and from a crime scene.

Due to mutations and variation in alleles and changes in the DNA sequence, the recognition sites will vary and therefore, everyone will have different lengths of DNA fragments when cut with a restriction enzyme. RFLP analysis is generally not used anymore as STR analysis is both cheaper and faster

DNA Profiling – STRs

Short tandem repeats or microsatellites are short fragments of non-coding DNA which repeat many times and are highly variable, making them ideal for DNA profiling. These DNA sequences are unique to each person, and therefore by comparing number of repeats at several loci, one can identify a person relatively easily.

STRs analyses the number of repeating tandems of a 2-5 base pair sequence of DNA at multiple loci. The DNA is first amplified using PCR and then various alleles of each STR are then separated and made visible with fluorescent dyes. The resulting DNA profile is a series of coloured peaks at different locations, with each peak being one allele of one specific STR. The location of each peak indicates the size of the allele and hence the number of repeats.

DNA Databanks	Debate about the balance between human rights and the protection of the community. For example, whose DNA profiles should be added to the national database? Individuals convicted of serious crimes or should all individuals convicted be included too? Or, should they be held in databanks permanently or should they be removed after a given period?
Familial Searching	This is where investigators search for the relatives of a crime scene profile. This identifies a person not because of what they are known to have done, but because they have criminal relatives
Predicative Testing	This is where a sample of a person’s DNA is used to predict aspects of that person’s phenotype. This reinforces the possibility of prejudices against certain groups within the community and promotes racial stereotypes. Furthermore, this is not a mature science, but still in development

Genetic Screening

Genetic screening is commonly used to achieve early detection or exclusion of inherited disorders. Its purpose is to essentially confirm or rule out the presence in a person of a defective allele that is involved in an inherited disorder or that increases the persons’ susceptibility to a disease.

Social	Privacy, Reproductive decisions	Storing people’s genetic information
Biological	Accuracy, possible false positive and negatives	Potential to correct mutations, Intervention in evolution
Ethical	Informed consent for DNA sampling Security of stored genetic data	Legal access to genetic information Reliability of DNA as proof of guilt or innocence

Genetically Modified Organisms

GMOs are organisms whose genomes have been altered using genetic engineering technology. This is achieved by the addition or silencing of a gene or segment of DNA so that either function is gained or lost. To be identified as a GMO, the added or lost gene must be heritable

Transgenic Organisms

Transgenic organisms are those that contain foreign DNA from an unrelated species. These fragments of foreign DNA can be introduced via pronuclear microinjection, a retrovirus or electroporation.

Case Studies

GMO rice crops have been given genes which confer tolerance to environmental stress, e.g. drought, flood, salt tolerance, increasing the productivity of the rice plant. While transgenic rice plants e.g. golden rice, have a foreign gene that codes for β-carotene, attempting to aid those in impoverished nations where there was a lack of vitamin A

GMO Cotton plants have been modified to allow them to produce a natural insecticide, reducing the need to spray the plants with added chemicals. Insecticides can be toxic to people, but some naturally occurring toxins, e.g. those produced by the GMO cotton plants are not toxic to people

Social	Increased food supply, nutritional content and food quality Expanded range for growth of agricultural species	Labelling and consumer choice Patents and pricing
Biological	Safety of consuming GMOs Cross pollination b/w GM plants and wild plants Cross pollination b/w GM and non-GM crops	Viability of transgenic organisms in the wild Health of GMOs Genetic variation in agriculture
Ethical	Violation of animal rights Intervention in evolutionary process	Human self-interest overrides ethical treatment of other organisms

Golden Rice